Addressing Climate Change Vulnerability in Alaska Native Villages Through Indigenous Community Knowledge

From a Western standpoint, Alaska Native Villages (ANVs) and other indigenous groups have a particular vulnerability to climate change. At the same time, these groups may be seen by themselves and Westerners as having particular knowledge that can help them adapt to climate change. This paper explores how ANVs are vulnerable to climate change and considers factors such as colonization that aggravate this vulnerability. It then explores how indigenous community knowledge may reduce vulnerability and facilitate adaptation and resilience. It concludes that indigenous community knowledge alone is insufficient to support adaptation and resilience, given the degree of social, political, and climate change, so long as Western institutions privilege Western science over other forms of knowledge. That said, indigenous community knowledge should inform agency decision-making and development projects and may serve as cultural capital that can support resilience. The desire to use indigenous knowledge may be a proxy for a larger issue—the need to include indigenous communities in decision-making about climate change.

Abate, R. S., & Kronk, E. A. (2013). Commonality among unique indigenous communities: An introduction to climate change and its impacts on indigenous peoples. In R. S. Abate and E. A. Kronk (Eds.), Climate change and indigenous peoples, the search for legal remedies (pp. 3-18). Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing Limited.

Alessa, L., Kliskey, A., Lammers, R., Arp, C., White, D., Hinzman, L., & Busey, R. (2008). The Arctic water resource vulnerability index: An integrated assessment tool for community resilience and vulnerability with respect to freshwater. Environmental Management, 42(3), 523-541.

Anderson, C. L. (2012). Analysis of integrating disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation in the US Pacific Islands and Freely Associated States. Hazards, Climate, and Environment Program, Social Science Research Institute, University of Hawai’i at Mānoa.

Arruda, G. M., & Krutkowski, S. (2017). Arctic governance, indigenous knowledge, science and technology in times of climate change. Journal of Enterprising Communities: People and Places in the Global Economy, 11(4), 514-528.

Armitage, D., Berkes, F., Dale, A., Kocho-Schellenberg, E., & Patton, E. (2011). Co-management and the co-production of knowledge: Learning to adapt in Canada’s Arctic. Global Environmental Change, 21(3), 995-1004.

Arctic Council. (2017). Adaptation Actions for a Changing Arctic (AACA)-Bering/Chukchi/Beaufort Region Overview Report. Oslo, Norway: Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AMAP).

BIA. (2017). Indian entities recognized and eligible to receive services from the United States Bureau of Indian Affairs. Retrieved from https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/FR-2018-01-30/2018-01907/summary

Bixler, R. P. (2013). The political ecology of local environmental narratives: Power, knowledge, and mountain caribou conservation. Journal of Political Ecology, 20(1), 273-285.

Bernard, H. R., & Ryan, G. W. (2009). Analyzing qualitative data: Systematic approaches. Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications, Inc.

Bernard, H. R. (2006). Research methods in anthropology: Qualitative and quantitative approaches. Lanham, Maryland: AltaMira Press.

Bierbaum, R., Lee, A., Smith, J., Blair, M., Carter, L. M., Chapin, III, F. S., ... Seyller, E. (2014). Adaptation. In Climate change impacts in the United States: The third national climate assessment (pp. 670-706). U.S. Global Change Research Program.

Berger, T. (1999). A long and terrible shadow: White values, native rights in the Americas since 1492. Washington, D.C.: University of Washington Press.

Bronen, R. (2013). Climate-Induced displacement of Alaska native communities. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution.

Brown, C. L., Knapp, C., & Trainor, S. F. (2015). Current coastal change projects and priority information needs in Western Alaska, final project report. Retrieved from https://accap.uaf.edu/sites/default/files/resources/Coastal_Change_Project_ Report_FINAL_121916.pdf

Brubaker, M., Berner, J., Bell, J., Warren, J., & Rolin, A. (2010). Climate change in point hope, Alaska, strategies for community health. Alaska: Alaska Native Tribal Health Consortium.

Bennett, T. B. B., Maynard, N. G., Cochran, P., Gough, R., Lynn, K., Maldonado, J., ... Cozzetto, K. (2014). Indigenous peoples, lands, and resources. In Climate change impacts in the United States: The third national climate assessment (pp. 297-317). U.S. Global Change Research Program.

Birch, T. (2016). Climate change, mining and traditional indigenous knowledge in Australia. Social Inclusion, 4(1), 92-101.

Berkes, F., Colding, J., & Folke, C. (2000). Rediscovery of traditional ecological knowledge as adaptive management. Ecological Applications, 10(5), 1251-1262.

Berkes, F., & Jolly, D. (2001). Adapting to climate change: Social-Ecological resilience in a Canadian Western Arctic community. Conservation Ecology, 5(2), 18.

Berner, J., Brubaker, M., Revitch, B., Kreummel, E., Tcheripanoff, M., & Bell, J. (2016). Adaptation in Arctic circumpolar communities: Food and water security in a changing climate. International Journal of Circumpolar Health, 75(1), 1-8.

Berkes, F. (2009). Evolution of co-management: Role of knowledge generation, bridging organizations and social learning. Journal of Environmental Management, 90(5), 1692-1702.

Cameron, E. S. (2012). Securing indigenous politics: A critique of the vulnerability and adaptation approach to the human dimensions of climate change in the Canadian Arctic. Global Environmental Change, 22(1), 103-114.

Carothers, C., Brown, C., Moerlein, K. J., López, J., Andersen, D. B., & Retherford, B. (2014). Measuring perceptions of climate change in Northern Alaska: Pairing ethnography with cultural consensus analysis. Ecology and Society, 19(4), 27.

Chapman, R. S., Kim, S. C., & Mark, D. J. (2009). Storm damage and flooding evaluation storm-induced water level prediction study for the Western Coast of Alaska. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.

Corbin, J., & Strauss, A. (2007). Basics of qualitative research: Techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory. Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications, Inc.

Cutter, S. L., Barnes, L., Berry, M., Burton, C., Evans, E., Tate, E., & Webb, J. (2008). A place-based model for understanding community resilience to natural disasters. Global Environmental Change, 18(4), 598-606.

Chief, K., Daigle, J. J., Lynn, K., & Whyte, K. P. (2014). Indigenous experiences in the U.S. with climate change and environmental stewardship in the Anthropocene. In Forest conservation and management in the Anthropocene: Conference proceedings (pp. 161-176). Fort Collins, CO: US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. Rocky Mountain Research Station.

Cochran, P., Huntington, O. H., Pungowiyi, C., Tom, S., Chapin III, F. S., Huntington, H. P., Maynar, N. G., & Trainor, S. F. (2013). Indigenous frameworks for observing and responding to climate change in Alaska. Climatic Change, 120(3), 557-567.

Chaffee, E. (2008). Business organizations and tribal self-determination: A critical reexamination of the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act. Alaska Law Review, 25(1), 107-155.

Chapin III, F. S., Trainor, S. F., Markon, C., & Serreze, M. (2014). Alaska. In Climate Change Impacts in the United States: The Third National Climate Assessment (pp. 514-536). U.S. Global Change Research Program.

Chapin, F. S., & Cochran, P. (2014). Community partnership for self reliance and sustainability. Final report to communities from the Alaska Native Science Commission and the University of Alaska Fairbanks.

Chapin, F. S., III, Hoel, M., Carpenter, S. R., Lubchenco, J., Walker, B., Callaghan, T. V., ... Zimov, S. A. (2006). Building resilience and adaptation to manage Arctic change. AMBIO: A Journal of the Human Environment, 35(4), 198-202.

Chapin III, F. S., Folke, C., & Kofinas, G. P. (2009). A framework for understanding change. In F. S. Chapin III, G. P. Kofinas, and C. Folke (Eds.), Principles of ecosystem stewardship: Resilience-Based natural resource management in a changing world (pp. 3-28). NY: Springer.

Denton, F., & Wilbanks, T. (2014). Climate-resilient pathways: Adaptation, mitigation, and sustainable development. In Climate change 2014: Impacts, adaptation and vulnerability, Working Group II contribution to the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report, global and sectoral aspects (pp. 1101-1131). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Eisner, W. R., Jelacic, J., Cuomo, C. J., Kim, C., Hinkel, K. M., & Del Alba, D. (2012). Producing an indigenous knowledge web GIS for Arctic Alaska Communities: Challenges, successes, and lessons learned. Transactions in GIS, 16(1), 17-37.

Field, C. B. (2014). Climate change 2014: Impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability: Summary for policymakers. Retrieved from https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/02/ar5_wgII_spm_en.pdf

Freitag, R. C., Abramson, D. B., Chalana, M., & Dixon, M. (2014). Whole community resilience: An asset-based approach to enhancing adaptive capacity before a disruption. Journal of the American Planning Association, 80(4), 324-335.

Ford, J. D., Stephenson, E., Willox, A. C., Edge, V., Farahbakhsh, K., Furgal, C., ... Sherman, M. (2016). Community-Based adaptation research in the Canadian Arctic: Community-Based adaptation research. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Climate Change, 7(2), 175-191.

Ford, J. D., Pearce, T., Duerden, F., Furgal, C., & Smit, B. (2010). Climate change policy responses for Canada’s Inuit population: The importance of and opportunities for adaptation. Global Environmental Change, 20(1), 177-191.

Field, C. B., Barros, V. R., Dokken, D. J., Mach, K. J., Mastrandrea, M. D., Bilir, T. E., ... White, L. L. (2014). Climate change 2014: Impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability, contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Government Accountability Office (GAO). (2003). Alaska Native Villages: Most are affected by flooding and erosion, but few qualify for federal assistance. Retrieved from https://www.gao.gov/new.items/d04142.pdf

GAO. (2009). Alaska Native Villages: Limited progress has been made on relocating villages threatened by flooding and erosion. Retrieved from https://www.gao.gov/new.items/d09551.pdf

Haalboom, B., & Natcher, D. (2013). The power and peril of “vulnerability”: Lending a cautious eye to community labels. In R. Walker, T. S. Jojola, and D. C. Natcher (Eds.), Reclaiming indigenous planning (pp. 357-376). Montreal, Quebec: McGill-Queen’s University Press.

Howitt, R., Doohan, K., Suchet-Pearson, S., Lunkapis, G., Muller, S., Lawrence, R., ... Cross, H. (2013). Capacity deficits at cultural interfaces of land and sea governance. In R. Walker, T. S. Jojola, and D. C. Natcher (Eds.), Reclaiming indigenous planning (pp. 141-165). Montreal, Quebec: McGill-Queen’s University Press.

Howitt, R., Havnen, O., & Veland, S. (2012). Natural and unnatural disasters: Responding with respect for indigenous rights and knowledges. Geographical Research, 50(1), 47-59.

Hanna, J. M. (2007). Native communities and climate change: Protecting tribal resources as part of national climate policy: Report. Retrieved from https://scholar.law.colorado.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://www.google.com/&httpsredir= 1&article=1014&context=books_reports_studies

Hibbard, M., & Adkins, R. (2013). Culture and economy: The cruel choice revisited. In R. Walker, T. S. Jojola, and D. C. Natcher (Eds.), Reclaiming indigenous planning (pp. 94-112). Montreal, Quebec: McGill-Queen’s University Press.

Haycox, S. W. (2006). Alaska, an American colony. Washington, D.C.: University of Washington Press.

Haynes, J. B. (1974). Consequences of unplanned community development: Minto, Alaska. Michigan: Michigan State University.

Hausam, S. (2013). Maybe, maybe not: Native American participation in regional planning. In R. Walker, T. S. Jojola, and D. C. Natcher (Eds.), Reclaiming indigenous planning (pp. 166-192). Montreal, Quebec: McGill-Queen’s University Press.

Hamilton, L. C., Saito, K., Loring, P. A., Lammers, R. B., & Huntington, H. P. (2016). Climigration? Population and climate change in Arctic Alaska. Population and Environment, 38(2), 115-113.

Huntington, H. P., Quakenbush, L. T., & Nelson, M. (2017). Evaluating the effects of climate change on indigenous marine mammal hunting in Northern and Western Alaska using traditional knowledge. Frontiers in Marine Science, 4(319), 1-17.

Huntington, H. P. (1992). The Alaska Eskimo Whaling Commission and other cooperative marine mammal management organizations in Northern Alaska. Polar Record, 28(165), 119-126.

Huntington, H. P. (2000). Using traditional ecological knowledge in science: Methods and applications. Ecological Applications, 10(5), 1270-1274.

Huntington, H. P., Kruse, S. A., & Scholz, A. J. (2009). Demographic and environmental conditions are uncoupled in the social-ecological system of the Pribilof Islands. Polar Research, 28(1), 119-128.

Huntington, O. H., & Watson, A. (2012). Interdisciplinarity, native resilience, and how the riddles can teach wildlife law in an era of rapid climate change. Wicazo Sa Review, 27(2), 49-73.

Huntington, H., Fox, S., Berkes, F., & Krupnik, I. (2005). The changing Arctic: Indigenous perspectives. In Arctic climate impact assessment-scientific report (pp. 62-98). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Himes-Cornell, A., & Kasperski, S. (2015). Assessing climate change vulnerability in Alaska’s fishing communities. Fisheries Research, 162, 1-11.

Henri, D. A., Jean-Gagnon, F., & Gilchrist, H. G. (2018). Using Inuit traditional ecological knowledge for detecting and monitoring avian cholera among Common Eiders in the Eastern Canadian Arctic. Ecology and Society, 23(1), 22.

Houkamau, C. A., & Sibley, C. G. (2011). Māori cultural efficacy and subjective wellbeing: A psychological model and research agenda. Social Indicators Research, 103(3), 379-398.

Indian Law and Order Commission. (2015). A roadmap for making native America safer—Report to the president and congress of the United States. Retrieved from https://www.aisc.ucla.edu/iloc/report/

Ignatowski, J. A., & Rosales, J. (2013). Identifying the exposure of two subsistence villages in Alaska to climate change using traditional ecological knowledge. Climatic Change, 121(2), 285-299.

Jacobs, M. B., & Brooks, J. J. (2011). Alaska native peoples and conservation planning: A recipe for meaningful participation. Native Studies Review, 20(2), 91-135.

Johnson, N., Alessa, L., Behe, C., Danielsen, F., Gearheard, S., Gofman-Wallingford, V., ... Svoboda, M. (2015). The contributions of community-based monitoring and traditional knowledge to Arctic observing networks: Reflections on the state of the field. Arctic, 68(5), 1-13.

Jos, P. H., & Watson, A. (2016). Privileging knowledge claims in collaborative regulatory management: An ethnography of marginalization. Administration & Society, 51(3), 371-403.

Jojola, T. (2013). Indigenous planning: Towards a seven-generations model. In R. Walker, T. S. Jojola, and D. C. Natcher (Eds.), Reclaiming indigenous planning (pp. 457-472). Montreal, Quebec: McGill-Queen’s University Press.

Jones, B. M., Arp, C. D., Jorgenson, M. T., Hinkel, K. M., Schmutz, J. A., & Flint, P. L. (2009). Increase in the rate and uniformity of coastline erosion in Arctic Alaska. Geophysical Research Letters, 36(3), 1-5.

Knapp, C. N., Chapin III, F. S., Kofinas, G. P., Fresco, N., Carothers, C., & Craver, A. (2014). Parks, people, and change: The importance of multistakeholder engagement in adaptation planning for conserved areas. Ecology and Society, 19(4), 16.

Kofinas, G. (2016). Building resilience in the Arctic: From theory to practice. In M. Carson and G. Peterson (Eds.), Arctic resilience report (pp. 180-208). Stockholm: Stockholm Environment Institute and Stockholm Resilience Centre.

Kofinas, G. P., Chapin, F. S., Silver, S. B., Schmidt, J. I., Fresco, N. L., Kielland, K., ... Scott Ruppc, T. (2010). Resilience of Athabascan subsistence systems to interior Alaska’s changing climate. Canadian Journal of Forest Research, 40(7), 1347-1359.

Kemberling, N. M., & Avellaneda-Cruz, L. D. (2013). Preventing violence at all ages (2nd ed.). Anchorage, Alaska: Alaska Native Epidemiology Center.

Luft, R. E. (2016). Governing disaster: The politics of tribal sovereignty in the context of (un)natural disaster. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 39(5), 802-820.

Lynch, A. H., & Brunner, R. D. (2007). Context and climate change: An integrated assessment for Barrow, Alaska. Climatic Change, 82(1-2), 93-111.

Loring, P. A., Gerlach, S. C., & Penn, H. J. (2016). “Community work” in a climate of adaptation: Responding to change in rural Alaska. Human Ecology, 44(1), 119-128.

Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: An expanded sourcebook (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications, Inc.

Marshall, N., & Stokes, C. J. (2014). Identifying thresholds and barriers to adaptation through measuring climate sensitivity and capacity to change in an Australian primary industry. Climatic Change, 126(3-4), 399-411.

McNeeley, S. M. (2009). Seasons out of balance: Climate change impacts, vulnerability, and sustainable adaptation in interior Alaska. Alaska: University of Alaska Fairbanks.

McNeeley, S. M. (2012). Examining barriers and opportunities for sustainable adaptation to climate change in Interior Alaska. Climatic Change, 111(3-4), 835-857.

Makondo, C. C., & Thomas, D. S. G. (2018). Climate change adaptation: Linking indigenous knowledge with western science for effective adaptation. Environmental Science & Policy, 88, 83-91.

Martinez-Levasseur, L., Furgal, C., Hammill, M., & Burness, G. (2017). Challenges and strategies when mapping local ecological knowledge in the Canadian Arctic: The importance of defining the geographic limits of participants’ common areas of observations. Polar Biology, 40(8), 1501-1513.

Munaretto, S., & Klostermann, J. E. M. (2011). Assessing adaptive capacity of institutions to climate change: A comparative case study of the Dutch Wadden Sea and the Venice Lagoon. Climate Law, 2(2), 219-250.

Munckaf Rosenschöld, J., Rozema, J. G., & Frye-Levine, L. A. (2014). Institutional inertia and climate change: A review of the new institutionalist literature. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Climate Change, 5(5), 639-648.

Marino, E. (2012). The long history of environmental migration: Assessing vulnerability construction and obstacles to successful relocation in Shishmaref, Alaska. Global Environmental Change, 22(2), 374-381.

McClintock, S. (2009). Coastal and riverine erosion challenges: Alaskan Villages’ sustainability. In D. Nakashima (Ed.), Climate change and Arctic sustainable development: Scientific, social, cultural and educational challenges (pp. 120-130). UNESCO.

Nelson, D. R., Adger, W. N., & Brown, K. (2007). Adaptation to environmental change: Contributions of a resilience framework. Annual Review of Environment and Resources, 32(1), 395-419.

Nakashima, D. J. (2012). United Nations University, Traditional Knowledge Initiative & UNESCO. Weathering uncertainty: Traditional knowledge for climate change assessment and adaptation. UNESCO; UNU-IAS.

Nuttall, M., Berkes, F., Forbes, B., Kofinas, G., Vlassova, T., & Wenzel, G. (2005). Hunting, herding, fishing and gathering: Indigenous peoples and renewable resource use in the Arctic. In Arctic climate impact assessment (pp. 649-690). Retrieved from http://www.acia.uaf.edu/PDFs/ACIA_Science_Chapters_Final/ACIA_Ch12_Final.pdf

Napoleon, H. (2014). Alaska Natives: Still a people in peril. Alaska Dispatch. Retrieved from https://www.adn.com/commentary/ article/alaska-natives-still-people-peril/2014/10/19/

Nilsson, A., Hovelsrud, G., Amundsen, H., Prior, T., & Sommerkorn, M. (2016). Building capacity to adapt to and shape change. In M. Carson and G. Peterson (Eds.), Arctic resilience report (pp. 164-179). Stockholm: Stockholm Environment Institute and Stockholm Resilience Centre.

Nichols, T., Berkes, F., Jolly, D., & Snow, N B. (2004). Climate change and sea ice: Local observations from the Canadian Western Arctic. Arctic, 57(1), 68-79.

Nursey-Bray, M. J., Vince, J., Scott, M., Haward, M., O’Toole, K., Smith, T., Harvey, N., & Clarke, B. (2014). Science into policy? Discourse, coastal management and knowledge. Environmental Science & Policy, 38, 107-119.

Oppenheimer, M., Campos, M., & Warren, R. (2014). Emergent risks and key vulnerabilities. In C. B. Field et al. (Eds.), Climate change 2014: Impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability. Part A: Global and sectoral aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel of Climate Change (pp. 1039-1099). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Pearce, T., Ford, J., Willox, A. C., & Smit, B. (2015). Inuit Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK), subsistence hunting and adaptation to climate change in the Canadian Arctic. Arctic, 68(2), 233-245.

Pratt, K. L., Stevenson, J. C., & Everson, P. M. (2013). Demographic adversities and Indigenous resilience in Western Alaska. Études/Inuit/Studies, 37(1), 35-36.

Rosales, J., & Chapman, J. (2015). Perceptions of obvious and disruptive climate change: Community-Based risk assessment for two native villages in Alaska. Climate, 3(4), 812-832.

Rathwell, K. J., Armitage, D., & Berkes, F. (2015). Bridging knowledge systems to enhance governance of environmental commons: A typology of settings. International Journal of the Commons, 9(2), 851-880.

Ristroph, E. B. (2010). Alaska tribes’ melting subsistence rights. Arizona Journal of Environmental Law and Policy, 1, 47.

Ristroph, E. B. (2012). Integrating community knowledge into environmental and natural resource decision-making: Notes from Alaska and around the world. Washington and Lee Journal of Energy, Climate, and the Environment, 3(1), 81.

Ristroph, E. B. (2017a). Presenting a picture of Alaska Native Village adaptation: A method of analysis. Sociology and Anthropology, 5(9), 762-775.

Ristroph, E. B. (2017b). When climate takes a village: Legal pathways toward the relocation of Alaska Native Villages. Climate Law, 7(4), 259-289.

Ryan, G. W., & Bernard, H. R. (2000). Data management and analysis methods. In N. K. Denzin and Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research (pp. 769-802). Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications, Inc.

Reid, M. G., Hamilton, C., Reid, S. K., Trousdale, W., Hill, C., Turner, N., ... Matthews, H. D. (2014). Indigenous climate change adaptation planning using a values-focused approach: A case study with the Gitga’at Nation. Journal of Ethnobiology, 34(3), 401-424.

Silverman, D. (2000). Analyzing talk and text. In N. K. Denzin and Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research (pp. 821-835). Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications, Inc.

Smiddy, L. O. (2005). Responding to Professor Janda-The US experience: The Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA) regional corporation as a form of social enterprise. Vermont Law Review, 30, 823.

Seale, J. P., Shellenberger, S., & Spence, J. (2006). Alcohol problems in Alaska Natives: Lessons from the Inuit. American Indian and Alaska Native Mental Health Research, 13(1), 1-31.

Stewart, B. C., Kunkel, K. E., Stevens, L. E., Liqiang, S., & Walsh, J. (2013). Regional climate trends and scenarios for the U.S. national climate assessment. Part 7. Climate of Alaska. NOAA Technical Report NESDIS 142-7. Retrieved from https://www.nesdis.noaa.gov/sites/default/files/asset/document/NOAA_NESDIS_Tech_Report_142-7-Climate_of_Alaska.pdf

Sandercock, L. (2004). Commentary: Indigenous planning and the burden of colonialism. Planning Theory and Practice, 5(1), 118-124.

Tongco, M. D. C. (2007). Purposive sampling as a tool for informant selection. Ethnobotany Research and Applications, 5, 147-158.

Theriault, S. (2012). Indigenous peoples and climate change policies: A comparative assessment of indigenous governance models in Canada. In B. J. Richardson (Ed.), Local climate change law: Environmental regulation in cities and other localities (pp. 243-269). Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.

Thomas, C. S., Savatgy, S., & Klimovich, K. (2016). Alaska politics and public policy: The dynamics of beliefs, institutions, personalities, and power. Alaska: University of Alaska Press.

Tobias, J. K., & Richmond, C. A. M. (2014). “That land means everything to us as Anishinaabe….”: Environmental dispossession and resilience on the North Shore of Lake Superior. Health & Place, 29, 26-33.

Veland, S., Howitt, R., Dominey-Howes, D., Thomalla, F., & Houston, D. (2013). Procedural vulnerability: Understanding environmental change in a remote indigenous community. Global Environmental Change, 23(1), 314-326.

Wildcat, D. R. (2013). Introduction: Climate change and indigenous peoples of the USA. Climatic Change, 120(3), 509-515.

Wilbanks, T. J., & Kates, R. W. (2010). Beyond adapting to climate change: Embedding adaptation in responses to multiple threats and stresses. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 100(4), 719-728.

Wolf, J., Alice, I., & Bell, T. (2013). Values, climate change, and implications for adaptation: Evidence from two communities in Labrador, Canada. Global Environmental Change, 23(2), 548-562.

Wernham, A. (2007). Inupiat health and proposed Alaskan oil development: Results of the first integrated Health Impact Assessment/Environmental Impact Statement for proposed oil development on Alaska’s North Slope. EcoHealth, 4(4), 500-513.

Wexler, L. (2014). Looking across three generations of Alaska Natives to explore how culture fosters indigenous resilience. Transcult Psychiatry, 51(1), 73-92.

Wilson, N. J. (2014). The politics of adaptation: Subsistence livelihoods and vulnerability to climate change in the Koyukon Athabascan Village of Ruby, Alaska. Human Ecology, 42(1), 87-101.

Wildcat, D. R. (2009). Red alert!: Saving the planet with indigenous knowledge. Golden, Colorado: Fulcrum Publishing.

Walker, B. H., Gunderson, L. H., Kinzig, A. P., Folke, C., Carpenter, S. R., & Schultz, L. (2006). Handful of heuristics and some propositions for understanding resilience in social-ecological systems. Ecology and Society, 11(1), 13.

Warrick, O., Aalbersberg, W., Dumaru, P., McNaught, R., & Teperman, K. (2017). The “pacific adaptive capacity analysis framework”: Guiding the assessment of adaptive capacity in Pacific island communities. Regional Environmental Change, 17(4), 1039-1051.

Williams, T., & Hardison, P. (2013). Culture, law, risk and governance: Contexts of traditional knowledge in climate change adaptation. Climatic Change, 120(3), 531-544.

Watson, A., & Huntington, O. (2008). They’re here—I can feel them: The epistemic spaces of indigenous and western knowledges. Social & Cultural Geography, 9(3), 257-281.

Zhang, Y., & Wildemuth, B. M. (2005). Qualitative analysis of content. Analysis, 1(2), 1-12.